Critical Thinking in Social Studies: King Arthur

Dayna Hart, M.Ed, B.A.

Introduction

For educators to be most successful, they must teach topics that interest as well as tap into the students’ prior knowledge. Incorporating stories into the curriculum is an innovative, and hitherto overlooked, way to teach students about history. Often, historical texts are the form of discourse typically chosen to teach students; however, legends and historical fiction are two others that have the potential to engage readers. For the purpose of this project the Arthurian stories were chosen to highlight the instructional strategies for history educators. By using narrative in the classroom, educators can teach material that students find entertaining. The entertainment will pique and maintain student interest in the topics, thereby making students more motivated to learn the material. Stories, therefore, will provide another way into the curriculum for students.

By incorporating stories into the Social Studies classroom, educators can teach students skills, such as critical thinking. By improving their analytical skills, students can better deal with the bombardment of information, both true and false, that they receive on a daily basis. Where before, news stories may have confused students with conflicting viewpoints, students will be able to use their critical thinking skills to analyze material they encounter and discover any bias. Acquisition of such skills is important for students in order to develop “citizens who are able to acquire the requisite information to consider multiple perspectives and to make reasoned judgements” (BCMOE, 1997, A-1). Teaching students these skills can be accomplished through the incorporation of narrative into the curriculum.

The Appeal of the King Arthur Legend

The story of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table has survived over 1500 years, even though there is very little historical evidence for the story’s basis. The King Arthur legends are not stories that have settled into the background of popular culture; rather, they are ever-present, turning up in myriad situations and cultures. King Arthur is featured in representations that range from music and films to comics and video games.

Arthur is represented as an ideal hero, a modest, unassuming individual who becomes King and sets out to find the Holy Grail. At the same time, Arthur is trying to fend off the attacking Anglo Saxons who are constantly raiding the British Isles. This scenario, of an average person overcoming various obstacles, offers hope to readers. Suddenly, the readers feel that they too can face obstacles in their own lives. Arthur represents, not only an everyday person rising to greatness, but also good challenging evil. King Arthur speaks to us from a different time, but provides inspiration and reassurance to people today through the promise of his return.

The captivating nature of the King Arthur story is complex. At one level, these stories allow us to connect with our past. Readers are enticed by a civilization not quite yet civilized, as seen in the Middles Ages, a time when people believed in witches and other mysticism. It was a real time period, where ideas and daydreams could be explored, which seems freer than today’s world where people go to school, get a job, and have most trips and adventures mapped out and any mysteries explained.

Stories allow students to experience history vicariously. Keen and Valley-Fox (1973) write: “by telling stories, we remember our past, invent our present, revision our future, discover compassion and create community with kindred souls” (as cited in Norum, 2000, p. 3). These shared stories help us connect with people and understand others better.

Knowing so little about the truth of the story adds to the allure of King Arthur. The King Arthur legends have survived over 1500 years, changing greatly over time, not only in the characterization of Arthur but also in the addition of figures to the legends. The legends have transformed in order to appeal to audiences and reflect society of different eras. This transformation has been easy because the Arthurian stories are based on so few facts, which allow for almost any rendition of the story to be possible. The malleability ensures Arthur’s popularity, because the story can be shaped to fit any audience’s expectations. Barber (1979) explains: “Arthur’s magic is that he is a shape-shifter; but he does so subtly and slowly, changing his form to suit the needs of each new age” (p. 2). This flexibility makes King Arthur and related stories appealing because the storyteller is allowed to be creative in the telling of the Arthurian legends.

Each storyteller has added elements to the tale, sometimes incorporating entirely new components. For example, the Lancelot complication was actually a late addition, as were the stories regarding the quest for the Holy Grail. Chretien’s (c. 1177) addition of Lancelot, the most well-documented change in the story, served two purposes. Chretien was writing for the French audience at court, and, in order to appeal to the female audience, incorporated a romantic storyline. The romantic love triangle helped divert attention from King Arthur, since the antagonistic relations between France and Britain meant no French audience wanted to hear the heroic exploits of a British King.

Thus, although Arthur’s story is that of a British King, his endeavors do not exist solely in English. In addition to Chretien’s version, the Arthurian legends have been translated into various languages; “there are Serbo-Croatian, Greek, Japanese and Tagalog [King Arthur] texts” (Lacy, 1986, p. vii). That these various translations exist, highlights the universal appeal of the hero’s journey. Castleden (2000) comments “it may well be Arthur’s strange position midway between king and demi-god, between Christianity and paganism, between history and myth, that appeals to so many people” (p. 4). Indeed, the Arthurian legends contain so many characters and varying plots that readers may pick and choose thematic strands that they find more appealing.

Students experience history vicariously through story outside the classroom setting; the key now is to use these stories within the curriculum. Levstik and Freeman (1988) studied incorporating historical fiction into the curriculum. Their research shows that “through the characters in these books, readers vicariously experience the past, reinterpreting it on the basis of their own experiences, values, hopes, and fears” (p. 331). The Arthurian legends are richly interwoven stories that highlight two important themes in this project: critical thinking and the historian’s narrative.

Students’ Prior Knowledge of the King Arthur Legend

Because King Arthur is an intriguing story often retold in our culture, students will have prior knowledge of the tale. A literature survey reveals that thousands of books, ranging from the first known version of the story, The Ruin of Britain, to contemporary analysis, have been written about the King Arthur tale. Yet, King Arthur does not survive solely in print. An examination of visual material shows that the legend has reinvented itself several times in film as well. There are hundreds of versions of the story, of the classic retelling from A&E’s Biography, to more interpretative forms such as Monty Python’s rendition, Quest for the Holy Grail, and Zimmer Bradley’s Mists of Avalon. Aside from literature and film, the Arthurian story has been the inspiration in various forms of art, from classical music, most notably Wagner’s work, to contemporary comic books, and has spurned a multitude of websites devoted to King Arthur. No matter to which media form people turn, they will encounter a version the King Arthur story.

With the King Arthur myth having worked its way into a variety of media, the students will have encountered it in at least one form and be familiar with the story of a hero on a quest. The different forms allow different avenues of exploration by readers. Some stories have focused solely on the exploits of King Arthur, while others have been more interested in the love triangle between Arthur, Lancelot, and Guinevere. The numerous characters, plus the multitude of stories surrounding Arthur means that the Arthurian legends are replete with possibilities. The stories will never stale because there is always something more to discover; thus, they cannot become boring for the students.

The interesting and adapting qualities of the King Arthur legends make it ideal for incorporating into, not only the Social Studies eight curriculum, but also other curricula for the age group. At the grade eight level many students show an interest in the fantasy genre, especially now, due to the hysteria created by the Harry Potter series and the release of the Lord of the Rings movies. Many of the fantasy storylines have medieval characteristics to them, whether they are through setting, clothing or speech. It is this combination of fantasy and medieval worlds, familiar and appealing to students, that is also found in the Arthurian legend.

The King Arthur legend effectively straddles the worlds of the Middle Ages and fantasy: as it has elements of each. It is set in the Middle Ages and surveys Arthur’s quest, which is very fantastical in nature. Because of the large cast of characters and the various storylines within the legends, the King Arthur stories will appeal to a wide range of students. Some students will be drawn to the love story of Guinevere and Lancelot, while others will be fascinated by Arthur’s heroic journey. Although no studies have yet been conducted on what students identify with or like in the Arthurian legends, I believe that using the Arthur stories will be a fruitful endeavor. The Arthurian legends will captivate the students’ imaginations, making them engage with the material and more willing participants in the learning process.

The Power and Mystery of Myth

In the opening of “Mythic Reflections” Campbell (1986) answers the question of why we have myths:

It puts you in touch with a plane of reference that goes past your mind and into your very being, into your very gut. The ultimate mystery of being and nonbeing transcends all categories of knowledge and thought…The function of mythological symbols is to give you a sense of “Aha! Yes, I know what it is, it’s myself.” This is what it’s all about, and then you feel a kind of centering, centering, centering all the time. (p.1)

It is this idea, that myths are spiritual, that is central to Campbell’s writings. The power of myth is spiritual because it connects individuals to their history and themselves. No matter what state the world is in, society seeks out mythologies, both old and new, to fill an identifiable void.

In today’s global world, where economics, politics and education rule, society has deemed mythologies as irrelevant, passé. Yet, that same society keeps perpetuating myths, such as King Arthur, and inventing new stories, as seen with the crop circles. What is striking is the incongruence between what is expected and what is desired. If people did not find something of value or interest in the myths, the stories would not be retold. That myths are constantly told, however, shows that there is some knowledge and allure in stories.

VanSledright and Brophy (1992) studied how children tell stories when recounting history. They found that children use their imaginations to fill in the gaps. Their recommendation is that educators must provide facts and thus, a framework on which students connect their stories. In this global world, individuals are overwhelmed by facts, usually scientific. Perhaps people in society are looking for a story in which they can incorporate the facts and allow their imagination to run free.

Arthur has been adapted to fit a variety of cultures, as seen by its translations into a variety of languages. This encourages variations and adaptations and is a step toward creating a global myth. I believe that the King Arthur story is, at the moment, the best story Western civilization has.

Society keeps retelling the stories of heroes and gods, and does not tire of listening to them. One element that is universal to myths is mystery. Campbell (1988), in his book The Power of Myth, comments of myth’s mystery:

Myth basically serves four functions. The first is the mystical function – that is the one I’ve been speaking about, realizing what a wonder the universe is, and what a wonder you are, and experiencing awe before this mystery. Myth opens the world to the dimension of mystery, to the realization of the mystery that underlies all forms. If you lose that, you don’t have a mythology. (p. 31)

These mysteries are essential to myth’s appeal. Humans are very egotistical and dislike having things out of their reach; however, they do not want everything explained. It is a fine balance. People want power over the world around them, power through knowledge, but they like mysteries to keep challenging the intellect. It is as if society does not want the world broken down and explained scientifically. At least, people do not want all the world’s mysteries to be explained.

In fact, if necessary, society will move to create its own unexplained phenomena. For example, on August 5, 2002, CBC Radio ran a report on circle formations in crops, because a formation had been discovered in Quebec. Crop formations have been deemed hoaxes; however, it does not stop people from believing UFOs are responsible, because people want something to believe in.

Signs, a thriller based on the crop circles, capitalizes on society’s enthrallment with the unexplained. The movie proved to be successful, taking in 60 million dollars on its opening weekend to make it the 12^th largest grossing movie on an opening weekend. Such interest in something that, for a while, looked as though it was unexplainable, shows that society is desperately searching for a contemporary myth. Perhaps this has something to do with the decline of religious adherence in the Western World as we strive to create a new story filled with mystical intrigue. Until a new myth is created though, we will keep returning to the tale of King Arthur.

The King Arthur Instructional Resource – Nature of History and Critical Thinking

A survey of the grade eight Social Studies curriculum to establish learning outcomes for the King Arthur unit and readily available resources about King Arthur will be collected and referenced to anchor this curriculum development project. These resources will be analyzed to outline the variety of prior conceptions students could develop from their experiences with these or similar resources. As a result, a series of lessons will be developed that will have six outcomes in mind: 1) engage and motivate students, 2) introduce primary historical resources about the Middle Ages, 3) compare and contrast popular media resources with the historical resources with embedded instruction of critical thinking, 4) provide context for applying critical thinking through the use of film studies, 5) create a final series of lessons, using the Arthurian stories to construct a historical perspective of the Middle Ages and 6) include various forms of assessment. In addition, a series of reflections will be conducted with the project supervisor on the resources produced to establish potential themes for revision.

With the information that myths are powerful, and studies showing that students are more interested in learning when historical fiction is incorporated, King Arthur seems a natural choice to analyze the historian’s narrative. Before delving into the Arthurian texts it is important to determine the students’ prior knowledge. This can be accomplished through a class discussion. Once the information is gathered, it is important to determine where the students acquired their knowledge. These ‘data’ can be used later in the lessons when discussing what the authors and directors base their stories on. The first lesson of the proposed unit plan will include a discussion that will provide students with the opportunity to express themselves. Using such an introduction, along with the topic itself, will interest and engage the students in learning.

Before delving into critically analyzing the Arthurian resources, students need to be comfortable with thinking critically. In the proposed unit plan, the next two lessons have been allocated as teaching students the critical thinking skills of recognizing tone and bias in narrative. This allows students to practice these critical thinking skills on historical sources and make them more comfortable with the upcoming tasks.

Lessons four and five will have the students look at some primary sources that date from the Middle Ages. Primary sources are rarely incorporated into the historian’s text of a Social Studies textbook, rather, if they are included, they are boxed off in such a way that students do not read them. Also, very rarely are there different primary sources on the same topic. This first stage of the critical thinking lesson plans will use quotations from the early works regarding King Arthur. These quotations will help the students form an image of what King Arthur was like according to the early records of him. Students will soon realize that Arthur was not always described as a heroic figure. It is important to see the different depictions of King Arthur at this early stage because it shows how there can be many different perspectives on the same individual or historical event. Thus, students can start to examine the historian’s narrative to see what story is told.

The second phase of the lesson plans is to use quotations from historical fiction that describe King Arthur. In lessons six and seven, students will suddenly see that King Arthur is described in a positive light only – unlike the early sources. In these examples, identifying the narrator’s bias and voice in the text will be much easier because students are used to analyzing the narration in English class. The concepts of point of view and tone will be familiar to them. These first two activities should reinforce how authors tend to portray Arthur as a flawless hero. Secondly, students should begin to see how the author, whether it be a fiction writer or historian, filters the information through his own biases. Thirdly, they should also become aware of the legend’s ability to be altered into any situation. In other words, Arthur can be presented in a variety of different tales, each of which seems viable.

Before describing the third activity in the Arthurian unit, it is important to reiterate that these activities, although very structured, do not have to be done lock step. As any experienced educator knows, it is important to keep the students interested, and thus, any portion of the activities can be shortened or lengthened as necessary. Whitehead says, “my second caution is to ask you not to exaggerate into sharpness the distinction between the three stages of a cycle” (p. 38). However, if this is the first critical thinking task the educator is endeavoring with the students, the teacher may want to rely on the structure for comfort. Many students are unfamiliar with critical thinking activities and, as a result do not have the skills to complete many tasks expected of them on their own. As Swarchuk (2000) points out: “The loosely-structured, global approach can be frustrating” (p. iv).

In the third section of the critical thinking study, film is introduced. Students get into groups of two or three and sign up for one of a variety of Arthurian films. It is the students’ responsibility to watch the film in their own time and take notes. After the students have watched their movies and taken notes, they come back to class to participate in a round table discussion. Here, each film’s plot is summarized. Next, the class moves to the harder task of compiling how the movie portrayed King Arthur. As Whitehead (1929) states: “new facts are added, but they are the facts which fit into the analysis” (p. 29). I believe this is what the students would be doing, taking fragments from all the stories and creating their own, more widely informed, narrative. Here, students will discover that the directors also have a bias filter through which they see King Arthur.

Undoubtedly, the question will arise as to whether or not King Arthur really existed. Raising questions is one of the positive side effects of using the Arthurian legend for inquiry. No matter what the students decide (whether King Arthur was real or not) they cannot be wrong, for no one truly knows the true story of King Arthur. I think this is extremely important for the students and for the study of history. This sense of not knowing means that the students are not journeying to an already defined point - a correct answer. They cannot run to the internet and search for the correct answer according to Western civilization. Rather, the students are gathering and interpreting information and coming to their own conclusions. “The pupils have got to be made to feel that they are studying something, and are not merely executing intellectual minuets” (Whitehead, 1929, p. 21). In other words, the students are making connections and relationships between texts to find their own meaning.

Table 3.1 Unit Outline